Gupta, Ram B.
Gasoline, Diesel, and Ethanol Biofuels from Grasses and Plants. - 1 online resource (246 pages)
Cover -- Half-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Energy -- 1.2 Petroleum -- 1.2.1 History of Petroleum Exploration -- 1.2.2 Petroleum Refining and Shipping -- 1.2.3 Classification of Oils -- 1.2.4 Petroleum Reserves and Crude Oil Production -- 1.2.5 Crude Oil Pricing -- 1.3 Natural Gas -- 1.3.1 Methane from Gas Hydrates -- 1.4 Coal -- 1.5 Biofuels -- 1.5.1 Ethanol -- 1.5.2 Methanol -- 1.5.3 Butanol -- 1.5.4 Biogas -- 1.5.5 Hydrogen -- 1.5.6 Biodiesel -- 1.5.7 Bio-Oil -- 1.5.8 Diesel from Fisher-Tropsch Technology -- 1.5.9 Biocrude -- 1.5.10 Biochar -- 1.6 Summary -- 2 Air Pollution and Global Warming from the Use of Fossil Fuels -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Air Pollution -- 2.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides -- 2.2.2 Sulfur Dioxide -- 2.2.3 Fine Particles -- 2.2.4 Mercury -- 2.2.5 Lead -- 2.3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions -- 2.4 Greenhouse Effect -- 2.5 Global Warming -- 2.5.1 Argument against Global Warming -- 2.6 Kyoto Protocol -- 2.7 Carbon Credits -- 2.8 Carbon Sequestration -- 2.9 Summary -- 3 Renewable Energy Sources -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Biomass -- 3.3 Hydropower -- 3.4 Geothermal -- 3.5 Wind -- 3.6 Solar -- 3.7 Ocean Energy -- 3.8 Biogas -- 3.9 Summary -- 4 Biomass Availability in the World -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Biomass Definition -- 4.3 Biomass Sources -- 4.3.1 Solid Wastes -- 4.3.2 Agriculture Residue -- 4.3.2.1 Cereal Straw -- 4.3.2.2 Corn Stover -- 4.3.2.3 Rice Husk -- 4.3.2.4 Bagasse -- 4.3.3 Energy Crops -- 4.3.4 Pulp and Paper Industry Waste -- 4.3.5 Wood and Forest Waste -- 4.3.6 Algae -- 4.4 World Potential to Product Biomass -- 4.5 Biomass Characterization -- 4.5.1 Moisture Content -- 4.5.2 Ash Content -- 4.5.3 Heating Value -- 4.5.4 Organic Chemical Composition -- 4.5.5 Density -- 4.6 Summary -- 5 Conventional Ethanol Production from Corn and Sugarcane -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Ethanol. 5.1.2 Ethanol Fuel -- 5.2 Ethanol in Ancient Times -- 5.3 Current Ethanol Production -- 5.4 Fermentation -- 5.5 Ethanol from Sugarcane -- 5.6 Ethanol from Corn -- 5.6.1 The Corn Wet-Milling Process -- 5.6.2 The Corn Dry-Milling Process -- 5.6.3 Byproducts -- 5.7 Separation and Purification -- 5.8 Summary -- 6 Ethanol from Biomass by Fermentation -- 6.1 Challenges with Corn-Based Ethanol -- 6.2 Cellulose in Biomass -- 6.3 Sugars from Cellulose -- 6.4 Factors Affecting Lignocellulose Digestibility -- 6.4.1 Lignin Content -- 6.4.2 Hemicelluloses Content -- 6.4.3 Acetyl and Other Inhibitor Content -- 6.4.4 Cellulose Crystallinity and Degree of Polymerization -- 6.4.5 Surface Area of Pore Volume -- 6.5 Biomass Pretreatment -- 6.5.1 Physical Pretreatments -- 6.5.2 Chemical Pretreatments -- 6.5.2.1 Dilute Acids -- 6.5.2.2 Peracetic Acid (C2H4O3) -- 6.5.2.3 Concentrated Sulfuric Acid -- 6.5.2.4 Concentrated Phosphoric Acid -- 6.5.2.5 Ionic Liquids -- 6.5.2.6 Alkali -- 6.5.2.7 Ammonia -- 6.5.2.8 Organic Solvents -- 6.5.3 Hydrothermal Pretreatment -- 6.5.4 Physicochemical Pretreatments -- 6.5.4.1 Steam Hydrolysis and Explosion -- 6.5.4.2 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX) -- 6.5.4.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide -- 6.6 Cellulose Hydrolysis to Produce Sugars -- 6.7 Fermentation of Sugars to Ethanol -- 6.7.1 Xylose Fermentation -- 6.8 Ethanol Separation and Purification -- 6.9 Summary -- 7 Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils -- 7.1 What Is Biodiesel? -- 7.2 History -- 7.3 Vegetable Oil Resources -- 7.3.1 Nonedible Oil Resources -- 7.4 Transesterification -- 7.4.1 Catalytic Methods -- 7.4.2 Noncatalytic Supercritical Alcohol Method -- 7.4.3 Recovery of Glycerol -- 7.4.4 Reaction Mechanism -- 7.5 Current Technologies -- 7.5.1 Raw Materials and Feedstock Preparation -- 7.5.1.1 Choice of Alcohol -- 7.5.2 Batch Process -- 7.5.3 Continuous Process. 7.5.4 Single-Phase Cosolvent Process -- 7.5.5 Supercritical Methanol Process -- 7.6 Fuel Properties of Biodiesels -- 7.6.1 Viscosity, Density, and Flash Point -- 7.6.2 Cetane Number, Cloud, and Pour Point -- 7.6.3 Combustion Efficiency -- 7.6.4 Comparison of Methyl with Ethyl Esters -- 7.6.5 Emissions -- 7.6.6 Biodegradability -- 7.6.7 Engine Performance -- 7.7 Disadvantages of Biodiesel -- 7.8 Summary -- 8 Diesel from Biomass Gasification Followed by Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis -- 8.1 Diesel Fuel -- 8.1.1 Diesel from Petroleum -- 8.1.2 Diesel from Coal -- 8.1.3 Diesel from Biomass -- 8.2 Gasification of Biomass to Produce Syngas -- 8.2.1 Types of Gasifiers -- 8.2.2 Gasification Chemistry -- 8.3 Conditioning of Syngas -- 8.4 FT Synthesis to Produce Diesel -- 8.4.1 Reactor Configurations -- 8.4.2 Catalysts -- 8.4.2.1 Iron-Based Catalysts -- 8.4.2.2 Cobalt-Based Catalysts -- 8.4.2.3 Catalyst Supports -- 8.4.3 FT Synthesis in Supercritical Fluids -- 8.5 Fuel Properties of FT Diesel -- 8.6 Summary -- 9 Bio-Oil from Biomass Pyrolysis -- 9.1 What Is Bio-Oil? -- 9.2 Pyrolysis -- 9.2.1 Slow Pyrolysis -- 9.2.2 Fast Pyrolysis -- 9.3 Process Considerations -- 9.3.1 Feedstock Preparation -- 9.3.2 Heat Transfer Requirements -- 9.3.3 Effect of Metal Ions and Salts -- 9.3.4 Catalysis -- 9.3.5 Kinetics -- 9.3.6 Bio-Oil Yields -- 9.4 Pyrolysis Reactors -- 9.4.1 Bubbling Fluidized Bed -- 9.4.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed -- 9.4.3 Vacuum Pyrolysis -- 9.4.4 Ablative Fast Pyrolysis -- 9.4.5 Rotating Cone Pyrolyzer -- 9.4.6 Auger Reactor -- 9.4.7 Future Developments -- 9.5 Fuel Properties of Bio-Oil -- 9.5.1 Chemical Composition -- 9.5.2 Viscosity -- 9.5.3 Density -- 9.5.4 Acidity -- 9.5.5 Water Content -- 9.5.6 Oxygen -- 9.5.7 Char and Particle Content -- 9.5.8 Storage Stability -- 9.6 Upgrading of Bio-Oil -- 9.6.1 Solvent Fractionation -- 9.6.2 Deoxygenation -- 9.7 Summary. 10 Biocrude from Biomass Hydrothermal Liquefaction -- 10.1 What Is Biocrude? -- 10.2 Hydrothermal Medium -- 10.2.1 Dielectric Constant -- 10.2.2 Ion Product -- 10.2.3 Solubility of Organics -- 10.2.4 Diffusivity and Viscosity -- 10.3 Liquefaction Process -- 10.3.1 Batch Process -- 10.3.2 Continuous Process -- 10.3.3 Pumping Biomass with Biocrude -- 10.4 Liquefaction Mechanism -- 10.4.1 Hydrothermal Treatment with Catalysts -- 10.4.2 Hydrothermal Treatment with Reducing Gases -- 10.5 Properties of Biocrude -- 10.6 Refinement and Upgrading of Biocrude -- 10.6.1 Hydrodeoxygenation -- 10.7 Critical Issues -- 10.7.1 Heat Integration -- 10.7.2 Biomass Feeding and Solids Handling -- 10.7.3 Recovery of Inorganics and Catalysts -- 10.7.4 Reactor Wall Effects -- 10.8 Summary -- 11 Solar and Wind Energy for Biofuel Production -- 11.1 Process Energy Needs for Biofuel Production -- 11.2 Wind Energy -- 11.3 Solar Energy -- 11.3.1 Solar Collectors -- 11.4 Direct Use of Solar Radiation -- 11.4.1 Gasification -- 11.4.2 Pyrolysis -- 11.4.3 Challenges with Use of Direct Solar Radiation -- 11.5 Storage of Solar Thermal Energy -- 11.6 Summary -- 12 Environmental Impacts of Biofuels -- 12.1 Biomass and the Natural Carbon Cycle -- 12.2 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Production -- 12.2.1 Land Use -- 12.2.2 Irrigation Water Consumption -- 12.2.3 Fertilizer and Pesticide Use -- 12.2.4 Ecosystem Diversity -- 12.3 Environmental Impacts of Biomass-to-Biofuel Conversion -- 12.4 Environmental Impacts of Biofuel Use -- 12.5 Life-Cycle Impacts -- 12.6 Summary -- 13 Economic Impact of Biofuels -- 13.1 Biofuel Economy -- 13.2 Economic Impact of Corn Ethanol -- 13.3 Economic Impact of Sugarcane Ethanol -- 13.4 Economic Impact of Biodiesel -- 13.5 Future Economic Impact of Biomass-Based Biofuels -- 13.6 Economic Impact on Developing and Rural Economies -- 13.7 Summary. 14 Biofuel Policy -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Brazilian Biofuel Policy -- 14.3 European Biofuel Policy -- 14.4 Chinese Biofuel Policy -- 14.5 Indian Biofuel Policy -- 14.6 The United States Biofuel Policy -- 14.7 Global Biofuel Projections -- 14.8 Summary -- References -- Index.
This book introduces readers to second-generation biofuels obtained from non-food biomass, such as forest residue, agricultural residue, and waste wood.
9780511927201
Biomass energy.
Forest biomass.
Plant biomass.
Electronic books.
TP248.27.P55 G87 2010
662.88
Gasoline, Diesel, and Ethanol Biofuels from Grasses and Plants. - 1 online resource (246 pages)
Cover -- Half-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Energy -- 1.2 Petroleum -- 1.2.1 History of Petroleum Exploration -- 1.2.2 Petroleum Refining and Shipping -- 1.2.3 Classification of Oils -- 1.2.4 Petroleum Reserves and Crude Oil Production -- 1.2.5 Crude Oil Pricing -- 1.3 Natural Gas -- 1.3.1 Methane from Gas Hydrates -- 1.4 Coal -- 1.5 Biofuels -- 1.5.1 Ethanol -- 1.5.2 Methanol -- 1.5.3 Butanol -- 1.5.4 Biogas -- 1.5.5 Hydrogen -- 1.5.6 Biodiesel -- 1.5.7 Bio-Oil -- 1.5.8 Diesel from Fisher-Tropsch Technology -- 1.5.9 Biocrude -- 1.5.10 Biochar -- 1.6 Summary -- 2 Air Pollution and Global Warming from the Use of Fossil Fuels -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Air Pollution -- 2.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides -- 2.2.2 Sulfur Dioxide -- 2.2.3 Fine Particles -- 2.2.4 Mercury -- 2.2.5 Lead -- 2.3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions -- 2.4 Greenhouse Effect -- 2.5 Global Warming -- 2.5.1 Argument against Global Warming -- 2.6 Kyoto Protocol -- 2.7 Carbon Credits -- 2.8 Carbon Sequestration -- 2.9 Summary -- 3 Renewable Energy Sources -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Biomass -- 3.3 Hydropower -- 3.4 Geothermal -- 3.5 Wind -- 3.6 Solar -- 3.7 Ocean Energy -- 3.8 Biogas -- 3.9 Summary -- 4 Biomass Availability in the World -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Biomass Definition -- 4.3 Biomass Sources -- 4.3.1 Solid Wastes -- 4.3.2 Agriculture Residue -- 4.3.2.1 Cereal Straw -- 4.3.2.2 Corn Stover -- 4.3.2.3 Rice Husk -- 4.3.2.4 Bagasse -- 4.3.3 Energy Crops -- 4.3.4 Pulp and Paper Industry Waste -- 4.3.5 Wood and Forest Waste -- 4.3.6 Algae -- 4.4 World Potential to Product Biomass -- 4.5 Biomass Characterization -- 4.5.1 Moisture Content -- 4.5.2 Ash Content -- 4.5.3 Heating Value -- 4.5.4 Organic Chemical Composition -- 4.5.5 Density -- 4.6 Summary -- 5 Conventional Ethanol Production from Corn and Sugarcane -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Ethanol. 5.1.2 Ethanol Fuel -- 5.2 Ethanol in Ancient Times -- 5.3 Current Ethanol Production -- 5.4 Fermentation -- 5.5 Ethanol from Sugarcane -- 5.6 Ethanol from Corn -- 5.6.1 The Corn Wet-Milling Process -- 5.6.2 The Corn Dry-Milling Process -- 5.6.3 Byproducts -- 5.7 Separation and Purification -- 5.8 Summary -- 6 Ethanol from Biomass by Fermentation -- 6.1 Challenges with Corn-Based Ethanol -- 6.2 Cellulose in Biomass -- 6.3 Sugars from Cellulose -- 6.4 Factors Affecting Lignocellulose Digestibility -- 6.4.1 Lignin Content -- 6.4.2 Hemicelluloses Content -- 6.4.3 Acetyl and Other Inhibitor Content -- 6.4.4 Cellulose Crystallinity and Degree of Polymerization -- 6.4.5 Surface Area of Pore Volume -- 6.5 Biomass Pretreatment -- 6.5.1 Physical Pretreatments -- 6.5.2 Chemical Pretreatments -- 6.5.2.1 Dilute Acids -- 6.5.2.2 Peracetic Acid (C2H4O3) -- 6.5.2.3 Concentrated Sulfuric Acid -- 6.5.2.4 Concentrated Phosphoric Acid -- 6.5.2.5 Ionic Liquids -- 6.5.2.6 Alkali -- 6.5.2.7 Ammonia -- 6.5.2.8 Organic Solvents -- 6.5.3 Hydrothermal Pretreatment -- 6.5.4 Physicochemical Pretreatments -- 6.5.4.1 Steam Hydrolysis and Explosion -- 6.5.4.2 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX) -- 6.5.4.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide -- 6.6 Cellulose Hydrolysis to Produce Sugars -- 6.7 Fermentation of Sugars to Ethanol -- 6.7.1 Xylose Fermentation -- 6.8 Ethanol Separation and Purification -- 6.9 Summary -- 7 Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils -- 7.1 What Is Biodiesel? -- 7.2 History -- 7.3 Vegetable Oil Resources -- 7.3.1 Nonedible Oil Resources -- 7.4 Transesterification -- 7.4.1 Catalytic Methods -- 7.4.2 Noncatalytic Supercritical Alcohol Method -- 7.4.3 Recovery of Glycerol -- 7.4.4 Reaction Mechanism -- 7.5 Current Technologies -- 7.5.1 Raw Materials and Feedstock Preparation -- 7.5.1.1 Choice of Alcohol -- 7.5.2 Batch Process -- 7.5.3 Continuous Process. 7.5.4 Single-Phase Cosolvent Process -- 7.5.5 Supercritical Methanol Process -- 7.6 Fuel Properties of Biodiesels -- 7.6.1 Viscosity, Density, and Flash Point -- 7.6.2 Cetane Number, Cloud, and Pour Point -- 7.6.3 Combustion Efficiency -- 7.6.4 Comparison of Methyl with Ethyl Esters -- 7.6.5 Emissions -- 7.6.6 Biodegradability -- 7.6.7 Engine Performance -- 7.7 Disadvantages of Biodiesel -- 7.8 Summary -- 8 Diesel from Biomass Gasification Followed by Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis -- 8.1 Diesel Fuel -- 8.1.1 Diesel from Petroleum -- 8.1.2 Diesel from Coal -- 8.1.3 Diesel from Biomass -- 8.2 Gasification of Biomass to Produce Syngas -- 8.2.1 Types of Gasifiers -- 8.2.2 Gasification Chemistry -- 8.3 Conditioning of Syngas -- 8.4 FT Synthesis to Produce Diesel -- 8.4.1 Reactor Configurations -- 8.4.2 Catalysts -- 8.4.2.1 Iron-Based Catalysts -- 8.4.2.2 Cobalt-Based Catalysts -- 8.4.2.3 Catalyst Supports -- 8.4.3 FT Synthesis in Supercritical Fluids -- 8.5 Fuel Properties of FT Diesel -- 8.6 Summary -- 9 Bio-Oil from Biomass Pyrolysis -- 9.1 What Is Bio-Oil? -- 9.2 Pyrolysis -- 9.2.1 Slow Pyrolysis -- 9.2.2 Fast Pyrolysis -- 9.3 Process Considerations -- 9.3.1 Feedstock Preparation -- 9.3.2 Heat Transfer Requirements -- 9.3.3 Effect of Metal Ions and Salts -- 9.3.4 Catalysis -- 9.3.5 Kinetics -- 9.3.6 Bio-Oil Yields -- 9.4 Pyrolysis Reactors -- 9.4.1 Bubbling Fluidized Bed -- 9.4.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed -- 9.4.3 Vacuum Pyrolysis -- 9.4.4 Ablative Fast Pyrolysis -- 9.4.5 Rotating Cone Pyrolyzer -- 9.4.6 Auger Reactor -- 9.4.7 Future Developments -- 9.5 Fuel Properties of Bio-Oil -- 9.5.1 Chemical Composition -- 9.5.2 Viscosity -- 9.5.3 Density -- 9.5.4 Acidity -- 9.5.5 Water Content -- 9.5.6 Oxygen -- 9.5.7 Char and Particle Content -- 9.5.8 Storage Stability -- 9.6 Upgrading of Bio-Oil -- 9.6.1 Solvent Fractionation -- 9.6.2 Deoxygenation -- 9.7 Summary. 10 Biocrude from Biomass Hydrothermal Liquefaction -- 10.1 What Is Biocrude? -- 10.2 Hydrothermal Medium -- 10.2.1 Dielectric Constant -- 10.2.2 Ion Product -- 10.2.3 Solubility of Organics -- 10.2.4 Diffusivity and Viscosity -- 10.3 Liquefaction Process -- 10.3.1 Batch Process -- 10.3.2 Continuous Process -- 10.3.3 Pumping Biomass with Biocrude -- 10.4 Liquefaction Mechanism -- 10.4.1 Hydrothermal Treatment with Catalysts -- 10.4.2 Hydrothermal Treatment with Reducing Gases -- 10.5 Properties of Biocrude -- 10.6 Refinement and Upgrading of Biocrude -- 10.6.1 Hydrodeoxygenation -- 10.7 Critical Issues -- 10.7.1 Heat Integration -- 10.7.2 Biomass Feeding and Solids Handling -- 10.7.3 Recovery of Inorganics and Catalysts -- 10.7.4 Reactor Wall Effects -- 10.8 Summary -- 11 Solar and Wind Energy for Biofuel Production -- 11.1 Process Energy Needs for Biofuel Production -- 11.2 Wind Energy -- 11.3 Solar Energy -- 11.3.1 Solar Collectors -- 11.4 Direct Use of Solar Radiation -- 11.4.1 Gasification -- 11.4.2 Pyrolysis -- 11.4.3 Challenges with Use of Direct Solar Radiation -- 11.5 Storage of Solar Thermal Energy -- 11.6 Summary -- 12 Environmental Impacts of Biofuels -- 12.1 Biomass and the Natural Carbon Cycle -- 12.2 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Production -- 12.2.1 Land Use -- 12.2.2 Irrigation Water Consumption -- 12.2.3 Fertilizer and Pesticide Use -- 12.2.4 Ecosystem Diversity -- 12.3 Environmental Impacts of Biomass-to-Biofuel Conversion -- 12.4 Environmental Impacts of Biofuel Use -- 12.5 Life-Cycle Impacts -- 12.6 Summary -- 13 Economic Impact of Biofuels -- 13.1 Biofuel Economy -- 13.2 Economic Impact of Corn Ethanol -- 13.3 Economic Impact of Sugarcane Ethanol -- 13.4 Economic Impact of Biodiesel -- 13.5 Future Economic Impact of Biomass-Based Biofuels -- 13.6 Economic Impact on Developing and Rural Economies -- 13.7 Summary. 14 Biofuel Policy -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Brazilian Biofuel Policy -- 14.3 European Biofuel Policy -- 14.4 Chinese Biofuel Policy -- 14.5 Indian Biofuel Policy -- 14.6 The United States Biofuel Policy -- 14.7 Global Biofuel Projections -- 14.8 Summary -- References -- Index.
This book introduces readers to second-generation biofuels obtained from non-food biomass, such as forest residue, agricultural residue, and waste wood.
9780511927201
Biomass energy.
Forest biomass.
Plant biomass.
Electronic books.
TP248.27.P55 G87 2010
662.88